Behind Locked Doors: A History of the Papal Conclave
Behind Locked Doors: A History of the Papal Conclave
The heavy doors swing shut. The command "Extra omnes!" – "Everybody out!" – echoes through the hallowed space, steeped in centuries of art and prayer. Within the Sistine Chapel, the Cardinal electors of the Holy Roman Church are sealed off from the world, embarked upon one of the oldest, most secretive, and most consequential electoral processes known to history: the papal conclave. This unique gathering, a blend of solemn ritual, intricate rules, and often intense human drama, is convened to choose the Bishop of Rome, the successor to Saint Peter and the spiritual leader of over a billion Catholics worldwide. The term itself, "conclave," derives from the Latin cum clave, meaning "with a key," a direct reference to the physical locking-in of the cardinals, a practice born not of abstract principle but of desperate necessity in the turbulent Middle Ages.
While the image of cardinals sequestered beneath Michelangelo's frescoes is iconic, the conclave as we know it is the result of nearly two millennia of evolution, conflict, and reform. The path from the early Church's local elections to the meticulously regulated procedures of today is a compelling story of the papacy's struggle for autonomy against secular powers, its internal battles over authority, and its continuous adaptation to changing historical circumstances. This article delves into the dramatic history of papal elections, tracing the origins of the conclave, the development of its complex rules, and the pivotal moments that have shaped this enduring institution.
I. Early Elections and Reform
In the nascent centuries of Christianity, the selection of the Bishop of Rome followed patterns similar to those in other Christian communities. The local clergy and the people of Rome chose their bishop, often by acclamation, a process that mirrored the election of bishops elsewhere. Neighboring bishops might preside over the assembly and judge the election's validity. However, the unique importance of the See of Rome meant these early elections were frequently fraught with contention, leading to disputes and, as early as the 3rd century, the emergence of rival claimants known as antipopes.
As the Church's influence grew, so did the interest of secular powers in its leadership. From the Byzantine emperors like Justinian I in the 6th century to the Holy Roman Emperors such as Lothair I and Otto I in the 9th and 10th centuries, rulers increasingly asserted a right to confirm, approve, or even directly appoint the pope. This imperial oversight often resulted in lengthy vacancies (sede vacante) while confirmation was sought from distant capitals like Constantinople, fostering political maneuvering among papal candidates seeking imperial favor. Simultaneously, powerful Roman aristocratic families vied for control over the papacy, particularly during the tumultuous 10th century, often referred to as the saeculum obscurum or "dark age," when their influence was paramount. A synod under Pope Stephen III in 769 attempted to limit eligibility to cardinal priests or deacons, excluding laymen and existing bishops, and also sought to curb lay interference, though these rules were not consistently followed or enforced, and the right of suffrage was later restored to Roman nobles.
The 11th century witnessed a significant Church-wide reform movement, which inevitably targeted the process of papal election. A pivotal moment came in 1059 when Pope Nicholas II issued a decree aimed squarely at curbing the pervasive influence of the Holy Roman Emperor and the Roman nobility, seeking to reclaim the Church's autonomy in choosing its leader. This decree represented a strategic shift, concentrating the essential electoral power within the Church hierarchy itself. It designated the cardinal bishops – the highest rank of cardinals, overseeing the dioceses surrounding Rome – as the primary electors. They were to meet first, discuss candidates, and then involve the cardinal priests and deacons for their assent. While the decree maintained a role for the acclamation of the Roman clergy and people, this was increasingly becoming a formality, a nod to tradition rather than a substantive part of the decision. Similarly, the decree acknowledged the emperor's "honour and reverence" but carefully avoided granting any direct power of approval, effectively reducing the imperial role to one of notification. The first election conducted under these new, more formalized rules resulted in the selection of Pope Alexander II in 1061 at the church of San Pietro in Vincoli. This formalization was less about procedural neatness and more a direct assertion of ecclesiastical independence against the external pressures that had long meddled in papal succession.
Despite these reforms, the 12th century remained a period of turbulence, marked by disputed elections and schisms in the 1130s and the 1160s-70s. This instability prompted further crucial refinements at the Lateran Councils. The Second Lateran Council in 1139 formally restricted the election entirely to the College of Cardinals, removing the need for assent from lower clergy and laity. More significantly, the Third Lateran Council in 1179, convened after another schism, decreed two fundamental changes: it granted equal voting rights to all cardinals (bishops, priests, and deacons), broadening the electoral base within the College, and, critically, it established the requirement of a two-thirds majority of the voting cardinals present for a valid election. This supermajority rule was a deliberate attempt to engineer consensus and bolster the legitimacy of the elected pope. By making it significantly harder for narrow factions to impose their will or for substantial minorities to contest the outcome, the Church aimed to legislate against the very divisions that had plagued it, hoping to prevent future schisms by demanding overwhelming support for any successful candidate.
II. The Viterbo Election and the First Conclave
The reforms of the 11th and 12th centuries laid the groundwork, but the papal election process was about to be forged into its more recognizable form by an extraordinary crisis. In November 1268, Pope Clement IV died in Viterbo, a town north of Rome that had served intermittently as a papal residence due to political instability in the Eternal City. Nineteen cardinals gathered there, as custom dictated the election occur where the previous pope died. What should have been a relatively swift process devolved into the longest papal election in history, a deadlock stretching for two years, nine months, and two days.
The primary cause of this unprecedented impasse was intractable political division within the Sacred College. The cardinals were split, largely along national lines, between a faction supporting French (Angevin) influence in Italy, championed by Charles of Anjou (whom Clement IV had crowned King of Naples and Sicily), and a faction, primarily Italian, resisting this influence. With neither side commanding the necessary two-thirds majority established in 1179, and neither willing to compromise, the election ground to a halt. Initially, the cardinals met daily in the Episcopal Palace (later known as the Palazzo dei Papi) but returned to their own residences afterward. The situation dragged on; three of the original twenty cardinals died during the protracted vacancy.
As months turned into years, the patience of the Viterbesi wore thin. Urged perhaps by figures like Saint Bonaventure, the city's magistrates, Podestà Alberto di Montebuono and Captain of the People Raniero Gatti, decided to force the cardinals' hands. In late 1269 or early 1270, they took the drastic step of locking the cardinals inside the Palazzo dei Papi, sequestering them cum clave – "with a key". This act of confinement gave the institution its name: the conclave. When even this failed to produce a result, the authorities escalated their measures. They drastically reduced the cardinals' rations, allowing them only bread and water. Finally, in perhaps the most dramatic move, they ordered the removal of the roof of the palace hall where the cardinals were meeting, exposing the princes of the Church to the elements. One ailing cardinal, Henry of Segusio, was eventually allowed to leave the "uncovered Palace" after renouncing his vote.
Under this intense physical and psychological pressure, the deadlock finally broke. On September 1, 1271, the cardinals agreed to delegate the decision to a committee of six members. This committee acted swiftly, electing Teobaldo Visconti, the Archdeacon of Liege, who was not a cardinal and was away in the Holy Land at the time. Visconti returned months later, accepted the election in March 1272, and took the name Gregory X.
Having endured the Viterbo ordeal firsthand, Gregory X was determined to prevent such a paralyzing vacancy from ever happening again. At the Second Council of Lyon in 1274, he promulgated the papal bull Ubi periculum ("Where greater danger lies"), formally establishing the conclave system and codifying strict rules for future papal elections. The bull's purpose was explicitly to ensure speed, limit outside interference, reduce the risk of schism, and encourage a more spiritual focus among the electors.
Ubi periculum essentially institutionalized the coercive measures that had proven effective in Viterbo, turning tactics used against the cardinals into the Church's own internal disciplinary mechanism. It reaffirmed the two-thirds majority rule and mandated that the election begin ten days after the pope's death in the city where the papal court resided. Crucially, it prescribed strict seclusion: the cardinals were to be locked incommunicado in a single common area within the palace where the pope died, with no partitions allowing for secret dealings. Each cardinal was permitted only one servant (two if necessary due to illness). Contact with the outside world was forbidden, as were politicking, bribery, and deal-making. Echoing the Viterbo experience, the decree imposed a progressive reduction in food: after three days without an election, only one dish per meal was allowed; after eight days, the diet was restricted to bread, wine, and water. Enforcement was delegated to local civic officials. While designed to foster independence and efficiency, this enforced seclusion, born of crisis, carried its own potential drawbacks. The harsh conditions experienced in Viterbo hinted at the physical hardships and potential for illness that could arise within the locked walls, factors that might unduly pressure electors or, ironically, even facilitate internal manipulation away from public scrutiny.
III. Schism, Politics, and Rule Changes
The stringent regulations of Ubi periculum faced immediate resistance from the cardinals who found them overly harsh. Gregory X's successor, Pope Adrian V, suspended the rules in 1276, just days after his own election (which had followed the rules and lasted only a day), intending to modify them, but he died shortly thereafter. Pope John XXI formally revoked the constitution later that same year with the bull Licet felicis recordationis. The consequence was predictable: papal elections once again became protracted affairs, lasting months in 1277, 1280-81, 1287-88, and an agonizing 27 months from 1292-94, often subject to interference from secular rulers like the Kings of Sicily. The chaos eventually led Pope Celestine V, a non-cardinal Benedictine hermit elected after the 1292-94 vacancy, to reinstate the rules of Ubi periculum in 1294. His successor, Boniface VIII, firmly anchored the conclave system by incorporating Ubi periculum into canon law in 1298.
Despite this consolidation, the 14th century brought new challenges. Following escalating conflict between Pope Boniface VIII and King Philip IV of France, the papacy relocated to Avignon in southern France in 1309. This "Babylonian Captivity," as it was later dubbed by critics (especially Italians), lasted until 1376. During this period, seven consecutive conclaves were held in the Palace of the Popes in Avignon, and each elected a French pope, fueling perceptions that the papacy had become subservient to French interests.
The return of the papacy to Rome under Gregory XI set the stage for the most devastating crisis in papal election history: the Great Western Schism (1378-1417). When Gregory XI died in Rome in March 1378, the Roman populace, fearing the election of another Frenchman who might return the papacy to Avignon, rioted and exerted intense pressure on the cardinals gathered in conclave. Under these tumultuous conditions, the cardinals elected an Italian, Bartolomeo Prignano, Archbishop of Bari, who took the name Urban VI. However, Urban VI quickly proved to be volatile and abusive towards the cardinals, leading many to question his sanity and the validity of an election conducted under duress. Later that same year, a majority of cardinals (mostly French) declared Urban's election invalid, convened a separate conclave at Fondi, and elected Cardinal Robert of Geneva as Clement VII. Clement VII eventually established his court back in Avignon.
The Church was now disastrously split. Europe divided its allegiance between the Roman pope (Urban VI and his successors) and the Avignonese pope (Clement VII and his successors), largely along pre-existing political fault lines. Each pope excommunicated the other and his followers, creating two rival papal administrations, two Colleges of Cardinals, and widespread confusion and spiritual anxiety throughout Christendom. The situation worsened when a council convened at Pisa in 1409, attempting to resolve the schism, ended up electing a third claimant to the papacy. This intolerable state of affairs demonstrated the catastrophic potential of disputed elections and political interference. Yet, this profound crisis also acted as a catalyst, forcing the Church to seek extraordinary measures for resolution. The Council of Constance (1414-1418), convened under pressure from the Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, finally ended the schism. It managed to secure the deposition or resignation of all three rival popes and, in 1417, elected Cardinal Oddone Colonna as Pope Martin V, the first undisputed pope in nearly forty years. In doing so, the Council asserted a theory of "conciliarism," claiming that a general council held supreme authority in the Church, even over a pope – a direct challenge to papal primacy that, although instrumental in ending the schism, was later suppressed by a resurgent papacy.
Following the resolution of the Schism, conclaves increasingly convened within the Vatican. The Apostolic Palace became the standard location from 1455 onwards, and the Sistine Chapel, recently adorned with Renaissance masterpieces, hosted its first papal election in 1492. This era, however, was also marked by intense political maneuvering and the influence of powerful Italian families like the Orsini, Colonna, Borgia, and della Rovere.
The conclave of 1492 stands as a notorious example of Renaissance papal politics. It resulted in the election of Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia as Pope Alexander VI. Widespread allegations surfaced that Borgia secured his election through simony – essentially buying votes by promising lucrative church offices, benefices, and outright cash to fellow cardinals. Cardinal Ascanio Sforza, for instance, allegedly received the Vice-Chancellorship and silver, while others secured abbeys and bishoprics. While the direct evidence for cash payments remains debated, the perception of a purchased papacy was strong. Intriguingly, there were also reports that King Charles VIII of France had provided substantial funds to support the candidacy of Borgia's rival, Giuliano della Rovere. Alexander VI's papacy, characterized by nepotism and the advancement of his family's power (notably his children Cesare and Lucrezia), is often seen as embodying the secular corruption that fueled calls for reform, ultimately contributing to the Protestant Reformation. Yet, this very environment of corruption often spurred reactive reform efforts. Giuliano della Rovere, who bitterly opposed Borgia and eventually succeeded him as Pope Julius II (the "Warrior Pope"), was motivated by his experiences to enact stronger rules against simony in future conclaves. This illustrates a recurring pattern: the exposure to or participation in systemic abuses could paradoxically become the impetus for attempts at correction.
Over the ensuing centuries, popes continued to refine conclave procedures. Pope Pius IV, in the bull In Elgidendis (1562), formally rejected external interference in the election. Pope Paul IV, in Cum ex apostolatus officio (1559), codified the long-standing principle that only Catholics could be elected, explicitly excluding non-Catholics and former Catholics deemed heretics. Pope Gregory XIV forbade betting on papal elections or the duration of pontificates in 1591. A significant procedural milestone was Pope Gregory XV's bull Aeterni Patris Filius (1621). This document provided detailed regulations for the voting process, firmly re-established the two-thirds majority requirement, and crucially, prohibited cardinals from voting for themselves – a practice previously possible through a method called accessus.
IV. Modern Conclaves: Intervention and Reform
The Age of Enlightenment and the subsequent era of revolutions presented new challenges to the papacy and its electoral process. The French Revolution led to the suppression of the Church in France, confiscation of property, and ultimately, the capture and exile of Pope Pius VI, who died a prisoner in Valence, France, in 1799.
This extraordinary situation forced the Conclave of 1799-1800 to be held outside Rome for the first time since the end of the Western Schism. Following Pius VI's contingency plans, the cardinals convened in the Benedictine monastery of San Giorgio Maggiore in Venice, then under Austrian control. The Austrian Emperor Francis II funded the conclave and actively sought to influence its outcome, dispatching Cardinal Franziskus Herzan von Harras as his plenipotentiary with instructions to support Cardinal Alessandro Mattei and effectively veto Cardinal Carlo Bellisomi. After a stalemate lasting over three months, the cardinals elected a compromise candidate, Cardinal Barnaba Chiaramonti, Bishop of Imola, who took the name Pius VII. The coronation itself was makeshift, featuring a papier-mâché tiara adorned with jewels donated by Venetian noblewomen, as the traditional regalia was unavailable. Pius VII's subsequent pontificate was dominated by his complex and often confrontational relationship with Napoleon Bonaparte, involving the Concordat of 1801 restoring Catholicism in France, the Pope's reluctant attendance at Napoleon's coronation (where Napoleon famously crowned himself), and Pius VII's eventual arrest and imprisonment by the Emperor. The Venice conclave, despite the external pressures and unusual circumstances, demonstrated the institution's resilience and capacity to adapt, ensuring the continuity of the papacy even when its traditional center was compromised.
The 19th century saw the gradual erosion and final loss of the Pope's temporal power with the unification of Italy and the capture of Rome in 1870. Subsequent popes considered themselves "prisoners in the Vatican." This period also witnessed the final, dramatic exercise of the jus exclusivae, the right of veto claimed by certain Catholic monarchs (France, Spain, Austria). Though never formally recognized by the Church, conclaves had sometimes pragmatically deferred to these secular interventions.
The Conclave of 1903, following the long pontificate of Leo XIII, brought this practice to a head. The leading candidate (papabile) was Leo's Secretary of State, Cardinal Mariano Rampolla del Tindaro. However, Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary considered Rampolla too sympathetic to France and republicanism. He instructed Cardinal Jan Puzyna de Kosielsko, Prince-Bishop of Kraków (after the Austrian Cardinal refused), to announce the imperial veto against Rampolla during the conclave. The cardinals were reportedly incensed by this blatant interference. Rampolla himself responded with dignity, declaring it an affront to the College but an honor to himself. Despite the initial outrage, Rampolla's support dwindled over subsequent ballots, perhaps because cardinals felt electing him against the Emperor's explicit wish would place the new pope in an untenable position. The conclave ultimately elected Cardinal Giuseppe Melchiorre Sarto, Patriarch of Venice, who took the name Pius X. The 1903 veto, however, proved to be its own undoing. The act was so offensive to the cardinals' sense of autonomy and the perceived spiritual nature of the election that it triggered its immediate abolition. One of Pope Pius X's first major acts, in the Apostolic Constitution Commissum Nobis (January 20, 1904), was to absolutely forbid any future attempt at external veto or interference, even the mere expression of a desire by a secular power, imposing automatic excommunication (latae sententiae) on any cardinal or conclave participant who accepted or facilitated such an intervention. This marked a definitive end to centuries of overt state intrusion in the selection of the pope. Pius X also undertook a comprehensive codification of the entire election procedure in 1904.
The 20th century saw further significant developments. Popes like John XXIII and Paul VI made concerted efforts to internationalize the College of Cardinals, breaking the long-standing Italian dominance and reflecting the Church's global growth. Pope Paul VI introduced two major reforms: in Ingravescentem aetatem (1970), he established an age limit, decreeing that cardinals who reached the age of 80 before the start of the conclave were ineligible to vote. In Romano Pontifici Eligendo (1975), he formalized this and set a notional maximum limit of 120 electors, aiming for a more representative and manageable body.
The impact of these changes became evident in 1978, the "Year of Three Popes". Following the death of Paul VI, the August conclave, the largest assembled up to that point and the first operating under the new age restrictions, quickly elected Cardinal Albino Luciani, Patriarch of Venice, who took the name John Paul I. His pontificate, however, lasted only 33 days. The cardinals reconvened for the October conclave. This time, after several days of balloting and reportedly overcoming a deadlock between conservative and liberal Italian candidates (Cardinals Siri and Benelli respectively), they elected Cardinal Karol Wojtyła, Archbishop of Kraków. Wojtyła, taking the name John Paul II, became the first non-Italian pope since Adrian VI in the 16th century. This historic election underscored the unpredictability of conclaves and signaled a definitive shift away from Italian control, reflecting the Church's changing global demographics and the effects of papal efforts to diversify the College of Cardinals. John Paul I's sudden death may have psychologically prepared the cardinals to consider a candidate from outside the traditional Italian pool.
Pope John Paul II himself issued the next major revision of conclave rules in the Apostolic Constitution Universi Dominici Gregis (1996), which remains the governing document today, albeit with amendments. This constitution confirmed many existing practices but introduced significant changes. It mandated that cardinal electors be housed in the modern Domus Sanctae Marthae guesthouse within Vatican City, a considerable improvement over the often austere, makeshift accommodations previously used. It formally abolished the historical (though long unused) methods of election by acclamation or compromise, leaving secret ballot as the sole legitimate method. It reinforced the strict rules on secrecy in light of modern communications technology. John Paul II also slightly modified the age limit rule: cardinals are ineligible if they turn 80 before the day the Apostolic See becomes vacant, rather than before the conclave starts. Controversially at the time, Universi Dominici Gregis initially introduced a provision allowing the cardinals, after a prolonged deadlock (around 33 or 34 ballots), to potentially move to elect a pope by an absolute majority (50% + 1) instead of the traditional two-thirds.
This last provision was reversed by Pope Benedict XVI. Concerned that it might allow a candidate to be elected without a sufficiently broad consensus, Benedict issued the Motu Proprio De aliquibus mutationibus in normis de electione Romani Pontificis in 2007. This document restored the requirement for a two-thirds majority for a valid election throughout the entire conclave, no matter how long it takes. It stipulated that if a deadlock persists after approximately 13 days of voting (following prescribed pauses for prayer and reflection), the subsequent ballots would be a runoff between the two cardinals who received the most votes in the preceding ballot. Even in this runoff scenario, a two-thirds majority is still required for election, and the two candidates themselves are ineligible to vote in the runoff.
Just before his historic resignation in 2013, Benedict XVI issued another set of modifications in the Motu Proprio Normas nonnullas. Recognizing the realities of modern travel for a global College of Cardinals, he gave the cardinals the authority to begin the conclave earlier than the traditional 15-day minimum waiting period after the papacy becomes vacant, provided all cardinal electors are present in Rome (they utilized this option in 2013). He also further tightened secrecy provisions, making the penalty of automatic excommunication (latae sententiae) explicit for any non-cardinal support staff (like technicians or medical personnel) who violate their oath of secrecy regarding the conclave proceedings. These adjustments by Benedict XVI reflect an ongoing effort to fine-tune the conclave process, balancing the need for logistical efficiency and heightened security in the modern age with the fundamental requirement of ensuring the elected pope possesses a strong, unifying mandate demonstrated by a consistent two-thirds majority.
V. How a Conclave Works Today
The election of a new pope today follows the detailed procedures laid out in Pope John Paul II's 1996 constitution Universi Dominici Gregis, as amended by Pope Benedict XVI in 2007 and 2013. This framework governs the period of the Vacant See (Sede Vacante) and the conclave itself.
The Vacant See (Sede Vacante)
This is the interval between the death (or resignation) of a pope and the election of his successor. During this time, the governance of the Church falls to the College of Cardinals, but their authority is strictly limited. They handle only ordinary business, matters that cannot be postponed, and the necessary preparations for the papal election. They cannot alter papal laws or make decisions reserved for the pope. Most heads of Vatican departments (the Roman Curia) automatically lose their positions upon the pope's death.
A key figure during the Sede Vacante is the Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church (chamberlain), currently Cardinal Kevin Farrell. His duties include:
Formally verifying the pope's death.
Sealing the papal apartments (study and bedroom) and, if applicable, the pope's rooms in the Domus Sanctae Marthae.
Destroying the Ring of the Fisherman (the pope's personal signet ring) and the lead seal used for official documents, symbolizing the end of the pontificate and preventing misuse.
Notifying key Vatican officials (like the Cardinal Vicar of Rome) of the pope's death.
Administering the temporal goods and day-to-day financial and administrative affairs of the Holy See, under the direction of the College of Cardinals.
Organizing the papal funeral arrangements in consultation with the cardinals.
Summoning the cardinals for the pre-conclave meetings. The Camerlengo does not assume papal authority; he acts as an administrator during the interregnum. Other officials who retain their posts include the Major Penitentiary (dealing with sensitive matters of conscience), the Papal Almoner (overseeing charitable works), and the Cardinal Vicar General for the Diocese of Rome.
Before the conclave begins, the cardinals hold daily meetings known as Congregations.
General Congregations: Attended by all cardinals (electors and non-electors over 80, though attendance is optional for the latter). They discuss the state of the Church, make arrangements for the deceased pope's funeral (held between the 4th and 6th day after death) and the subsequent nine days of official mourning (novendiales), prepare the Domus Sanctae Marthae and the Sistine Chapel, appoint clerics to give meditations to the electors, approve necessary expenditures, arrange for the destruction of the papal ring and seal, assign electors' rooms by lot, and crucially, set the date for the conclave to begin (between 15 and 20 days after the vacancy starts, unless they unanimously agree to start earlier once all electors have arrived).
Particular Congregations: Composed of the Camerlengo and three Cardinal Assistants chosen by lot for three-day terms. They handle routine daily matters.
The Electors
The sole right to elect the Roman Pontiff belongs to the College of Cardinals. To be eligible to vote (a Cardinal elector), a cardinal must not have reached his 80th birthday before the day the Apostolic See becomes vacant. While the rules notionally set a maximum of 120 electors, popes have frequently exceeded this number when making appointments. As of April 2025, there were 135 cardinals eligible to vote in the next conclave. In terms of eligibility to be elected pope, the technical requirement is simply to be a baptized male Catholic. However, since the election of Urban VI in 1378, the cardinals have always chosen one of their own number.
Entering the Conclave
The process begins formally on the morning of the designated day with the celebration of a Votive Mass Pro Eligendo Papa (For the Election of the Pope) in St. Peter's Basilica, attended by the Cardinal electors. In the afternoon, the cardinals process solemnly from the Pauline Chapel to the Sistine Chapel, chanting the hymn Veni Creator Spiritus to invoke the guidance of the Holy Spirit.
Once inside the Sistine Chapel, the cardinals take a solemn oath, collectively and individually. They swear to observe the rules laid down in Universi Dominici Gregis, to maintain absolute secrecy concerning the election proceedings, and, should one of them be elected, to faithfully carry out the duties of the papacy and defend the rights and liberty of the Holy See. After the oath, the Master of Papal Liturgical Celebrations gives the command "Extra omnes!" ("Everybody out!"). All non-electors leave the chapel, and the doors are locked from both inside and outside.
Secrecy and Isolation
Modern conclave rules enforce extreme secrecy. The Cardinal electors are completely isolated from the outside world for the duration of the election. They are forbidden from communicating by any means (telephone, mail, internet) and from receiving news (newspapers, radio, television). The Sistine Chapel and surrounding areas are meticulously swept for electronic surveillance devices. While the cardinals reside in the relative comfort of the Domus Sanctae Marthae guesthouse, they are strictly confined within the Vatican City walls and transported securely between the guesthouse and the Sistine Chapel for voting sessions. Any violation of the oath of secrecy by a cardinal or assisting personnel carries the penalty of automatic excommunication (latae sententiae).
The Voting Process (Scrutiny)
Since 1996, the only valid method for electing a pope is by secret ballot (per scrutinium). Voting takes place in the Sistine Chapel. Usually, one ballot is held on the afternoon of the first day. On subsequent days, there are typically two ballots in the morning session and two in the afternoon session, for a maximum of four votes per day. The process involves three phases:
Pre-scrutiny: Ballot papers are prepared and distributed. These are rectangular, bearing the printed words Eligo in Summum Pontificem ("I elect as Supreme Pontiff") on the upper half, with space below for writing the name of the chosen candidate. Nine cardinals are chosen by lot from among the electors to manage the ballot: three Scrutineers (who count the votes), three Infirmarii (who collect ballots from any electors confined to their rooms due to illness), and three Revisers (who double-check the vote count and the Scrutineers' work). Each Cardinal elector then secretly writes the name of his preferred candidate on a ballot, taking care to disguise his handwriting and write only one name. The ballot is then folded twice.
Scrutiny Proper: In order of precedence, each Cardinal elector holds his folded ballot aloft so it is visible, carries it to the altar where the Scrutineers are stationed, and before placing it on a paten (plate) and using the paten to deposit it into a large receptacle (often a chalice), he recites aloud the oath: "I call as my witness Christ the Lord who will be my judge, that my vote is given to the one who before God I think should be elected.". He then bows to the altar and returns to his seat. If any electors are sick within the Domus Sanctae Marthae, the three Infirmarii go to them with a locked box and blank ballots. The sick elector writes his vote, takes the oath, and places the folded ballot into the box through a slit. The Infirmarii return the locked box to the Chapel, where the Scrutineers count these ballots to ensure the number matches the number of sick electors, then place them in the main receptacle. Once all ballots are cast, the Scrutineers mix them within the receptacle and then count them. If the total number of ballots does not match the number of electors present, the ballots are immediately burned without being opened, and the vote is nullified; a new ballot must be taken. If the number matches, the Scrutineers proceed to open and tally the votes. Sitting at a table before the altar, the first Scrutineer unfolds a ballot, silently notes the name written on it, and passes it to the second Scrutineer, who does the same. The third Scrutineer then reads the name aloud so all electors can hear and record the vote if they wish. As each ballot is read, it is pierced with a needle through the word Eligo and threaded onto a string. Once all ballots are read, the ends of the thread are tied in a knot.
Post-scrutiny: The Scrutineers sum up the votes received by each candidate, recording the totals. The Revisers then check the ballots and the Scrutineers' tally sheets to ensure accuracy.
Reaching a Decision
A candidate must receive a two-thirds majority of the votes cast by the electors present to be validly elected Pope. If the first ballot (or subsequent rounds of balloting) does not yield a winner, the process continues. If, after approximately three days of voting (typically involving one ballot on day one and four ballots on each of the next two days, totaling seven ballots), no pope has been elected, the voting is paused for a day of prayer, reflection, and informal discussion among the cardinals. Voting then resumes for another series of up to seven ballots. If there is still no result, another pause occurs, followed by another series of seven ballots. If the cardinals remain deadlocked after these rounds (approximately 12-13 days in total), the procedure established by Benedict XVI comes into effect: the next ballot will be a runoff between the two cardinals who received the highest number of votes in the immediately preceding ballot. In this runoff, only these two candidates are eligible, and they themselves cannot vote. A two-thirds majority of the electors present is still required for one of the two candidates to be elected.
Smoke Signals and Announcement
The world learns the outcome of the voting through smoke signals rising from a chimney specially installed on the roof of the Sistine Chapel. After each voting session (morning and afternoon) that fails to produce an election, the ballots and any notes made by the cardinals are burned in a stove within the chapel. Chemicals are added to the fire to ensure the smoke emerging from the chimney is clearly black (fumata nera), indicating no pope has been chosen. When a candidate achieves the required two-thirds majority and accepts the election, the ballots are burned, typically without additives (or with chemicals to aid whitening), producing white smoke (fumata bianca). This signals to the crowds gathered in St. Peter's Square and the world watching via media that a new pope has been elected. The ringing of the bells of St. Peter's Basilica usually accompanies the white smoke.
Once a valid election occurs, the Cardinal Dean (or the Sub-Dean or senior Cardinal Bishop elector if the Dean is over 80) approaches the elected individual and asks in Latin: "Acceptasne electionem de te canonice factam in Summum Pontificem?" ("Do you accept your canonical election as Supreme Pontiff?"). With the affirmative response, "Accepto" ("I accept"), the person elected immediately becomes the Bishop of Rome, the Pope. The Dean then asks: "Quo nomine vis vocari?" ("By what name do you wish to be called?"). The new pope announces his chosen papal name. The Masters of Papal Liturgical Ceremonies act as official witnesses, recording the acceptance and the new name in a formal document. At the moment of acceptance, the conclave officially ends.
The newly elected Pope is then led to a small antechamber adjacent to the Sistine Chapel, known as the "Room of Tears" (so-called because new popes are often overcome with emotion there), where he dons the papal vestments (prepared beforehand in three sizes). After a period of prayer and receiving the homage of the cardinals, the Cardinal Protodeacon (the senior Cardinal Deacon elector) appears on the central balcony (loggia) of St. Peter's Basilica to make the traditional announcement to the waiting world: "Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum: Habemus Papam!" ("I announce to you a great joy: We have a Pope!"). He then proclaims the new Pope's Christian name and the papal name he has chosen. Shortly thereafter, the new Pope himself emerges onto the balcony to greet the crowds and deliver his first Urbi et Orbi ("To the City and to the World") blessing.
Table: Evolution of Key Conclave Rules
This table provides a simplified overview; specific rules and practices often had nuances and periods of suspension or non-enforcement.
VI. The Next Conclave
When the time comes for the next papal election, the process will unfold according to the framework established by Universi Dominici Gregis and modified by Benedict XVI. The College of Cardinals, acting as the sole electoral body, will convene within the secure confines of Vatican City to choose the next Successor of Peter.
As of early 2025, the body of Cardinal electors – those under the age of 80 at the time the papacy became vacant – numbered 135. This group reflects a significant shift in the geographical composition of the College, largely due to the appointments made by Pope Francis. While Europe still holds the largest single bloc of electors (around 40%, with 53 electors), its dominance has markedly decreased compared to previous decades. Representation from the Global South has grown substantially, with Asia-Pacific (18%, 23 electors), Latin America-Caribbean (18%, 17 electors), and Africa (12-13%, 18 electors) holding significant portions of the vote. North America accounts for about 10-12% (16 electors). This diversification means electors come from a wider range of cultural and pastoral contexts than ever before, representing roughly 70 countries. Furthermore, a substantial majority of these electors, approximately 80% (108 out of 135), were elevated to the cardinalate by Pope Francis himself, suggesting his vision for the Church will likely have a strong influence on the selection of his successor.
While the rules provide a clear structure and the demographics offer clues to potential dynamics, the outcome of any conclave remains fundamentally uncertain. It rests in the hands and consciences of the individual Cardinal electors, operating under conditions of intense secrecy and prayer, seeking what they believe to be the guidance of the Holy Spirit in choosing the next leader for the Catholic Church.
Legacy of the Conclave
The history of the papal conclave is a microcosm of the Catholic Church's own long and complex journey through time. From the informal, often chaotic, elections of the early centuries, buffeted by imperial ambitions and Roman factionalism, emerged a gradual process of formalization. The 11th-century reforms sought to assert ecclesiastical autonomy, while the 12th century's introduction of the two-thirds majority rule aimed to forge unity and legitimacy from within.
The harrowing experience of the 1268-1271 election in Viterbo proved a crucial turning point, forcing the Church to adopt the very measures of coercion used against its cardinals – seclusion, rationed food – as the basis for the formal conclave system under Gregory X's Ubi periculum. This reactive institutionalization, designed to ensure speed and independence, nonetheless carried the seeds of future challenges, including harsh conditions and the potential for internal pressures.
The subsequent centuries tested the system repeatedly. The Great Western Schism demonstrated the devastating consequences when the rules failed or were contested, pushing the Church to the brink but also spurring extraordinary conciliar efforts at resolution. Renaissance conclaves revealed the deep entanglement of the papacy with secular power politics and corruption, epitomized by the alleged simony in Alexander VI's election, yet even these abuses often provoked subsequent, albeit sometimes superficial, attempts at reform. The encroachment of modern states, culminating in Napoleon's interventions and the final exercise of the jus exclusivae in 1903, ultimately pushed the Church to definitively assert its electoral independence, formally abolishing the veto power that had lingered for centuries.
The 20th and early 21st centuries brought further refinements: age limits for electors, improved living conditions, the exclusive reliance on the secret ballot, and adjustments to the majority requirements and secrecy protocols, all reflecting attempts to adapt the ancient institution to a globalized Church and a modern media environment. The rules codified in Universi Dominici Gregis and its amendments represent the current stage in this long evolution, seeking to balance tradition with practicality, security with transparency (at least internally), and the human element of election with the theological conviction of divine guidance.
The papal conclave remains a unique institution, a blend of sacred ritual and structured procedure, designed to select a leader whose influence extends far beyond the walls of the Vatican. It stands as a testament to the Church's capacity for endurance and adaptation, having navigated centuries of political upheaval, internal division, and societal change.
